Atomic spectra and flame tests

In the vapour state, the alkali metals exist as atoms or M2 molecules. The strength of the M M covalent bond decreases down the group (Table 11.1). Excitation of the outer ms electron of the M atom occurs easily and emission 

Dissociation enthalpy of M—M bond inMj (298K)/kJmol-i 

Standard Gibbs energy of hydration of M+, AhydG°(298K)/kJmoP  

Construct an MO diagram for the formation of Na2 from two Na atoms using only the valence orbitals and electrons of Na. Use the MO diagram to determine the bond order in Na2. 

Bond order = 2[(number of bonding electrons) - (number 

In 1993, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) brought into use a caesium-based atomic clock called NIST-7 which kept international standard time to within one second in 10 years the system depends upon repeated transitions from the ground to a specific excited state of atomic Cs, and the monitoring of the frequency of the electromagnetic radiation emitted. 

In 1995, the first caesium fountain atomic clock was constructed at the Paris Observatory in France. A fountain clock, NIST-Fl, was introduced in 1999 in the US to function as the country s primary time and frequency standard NIST-Fl is accurate to within one second in 20 x 10 years. While earlier caesium clocks observed Cs atoms at ambient temperatures, caesium fountain clocks use lasers to slow down and cool the atoms to temperatures approaching 0 K. For an on-line demonstration of how NIST-Fl works, go to the website http //tf.nist.gov/cesium/fountain.htm. Current atomic clock research is focusing on instruments based on optical transitions of neutral atoms or of a single ion (e.g. Sr ). Progress in this area became viable after 1999 when optical counters based on femtosecond lasers (see Box 26.2) became available. 

NIST-Fl caesium fountain atomic clock at the NIST laboratories in Boulder, Colorado. 

Wynands and S. Weyers (2005) Metrologia, vol. 42, p. S64 - Atomic fountain clocks . 

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