Scientific applications

EE Abola, EC Bernstein, SH Bryant, TF Koetzle, J Weng. Protein data bank. In EH Allen, G Bergerhoff, R Sievers, eds. Crystallographic Databases Information, Content, Software Systems, Scientific Applications, Bonn Data Commission of the International Union of Crystallography, 1987, pp 107-132. 

Inertial sensors are useful devices in both science and industry. Higher precision sensors could find practical scientific applications in the areas of general relativity (Chow et ah, 1985), geodesy and geology. Important applications of such devices occur also in the field of navigation, surveying and analysis of earth structures. Matter-wave interferometry has recently shown its potential to be an extremely sensitive probe for inertial forces (Clauser, 1988). First, neutron interferometers have been used to measure the Earth rotation (Colella et ah, 1975) and the acceleration due to gravity (Werner et ah, 1979) in the end of the seventies. In 1991, atom interference techniques have been used in... 

Based on their corporate experience in supporting their own research and development projects as well as a number of government-sponsored activities, the development of scientific software at BBN grew out of a long history of support of a variety of scientific applications. For example, in the 1960 s, BBN developed a hospital information system for Massachusetts General Hospital which used an early minicomputer, the PDP-1, to support clinical research activities. Under the sponsorship of the National Institutes of Health, they developed a system called PROPHET (1) which provides a... 

Most recent scientific applications involve the determination of direct relationships between input parameters and a known target response. For example, Santana and co-workers have used ANNs to relate the structure of a hydrocarbon to its cetane number,4 while Berdnik s group used a theoretical model of light scattering to train a network that was then tested on flow cytometry data.5... 

At present, it appears that the most productive types of constructive clustering in the physical and life sciences will be the growing neural gas and the GCS methods in this chapter we focus on the latter. Although this method has notable advantages over the SOM, scientific applications of the GCS have only recently started to appear. There is a little more to the method than a SOM because of the need to grow the network as well as train it, but lack of familiarity with the technique rather than a lack of power explains the present paucity of applications in science because GCSs have nearly all the advantages of the SOM with few of the drawbacks. 

While floating-point values are used to construct the strings in most scientific applications, in some types of problem the format of the strings is more opaque. In the early development of the genetic algorithm, strings were formed almost exclusively out of binary digits, which for most types of problem are more difficult to interpret letters, symbols, or even virtual objects... 

In early work, GA strings were binary coded. Computer scientists are comfortable with binary representations and the problems tackled at that time could be easily expressed using this type of coding. Binary coding is sometimes appropriate in scientific applications, but it is less easy to interpret than alternative forms, as most scientific problems are naturally expressed using real numbers. 

The introduction of the Game of Life, developed by John Conway, ignited a burst of interest in CA models in the 1970s. At that stage, they were regarded mainly as a curiosity and few researchers anticipated that there would be much direct application for them in the physical and life sciences. Steven Wolfram s work in the 1980s on the use of CA in physics3 established the method as one with potential in many scientific problems and since then numerous scientific applications have appeared. 

In a scientific application, the sets to which an object might belong may describe physical or chemical observables that are in some sense continuously variable, such as "volatile," "acidic," or "green," but not all sets are so tangible, nor does the description of a set itself need to be inherently vague. We could create the sets "True" and "False" and, thus, define degrees of truth. 

Despite a mass of research activity in evolutionary computation (EC), activity that has led to solid theoretical results and realistic applications, there are still a number of perennial irritations that almost all EC techniques suffer from. First, the serious computational cost of evaluating numerous potential solutions (or individuals), over hundreds of iterations (or generations), places pragmatic and sometimes formal limitations on the use of EC in real-world applications with time-sensitive outputs, such as online multiprocessor scheduling. This real limitation deters many potential users from using or even considering the use of EC in heavy-duty engineering and scientific applications. 

Takes you efficiently and quickly to the point at which meaningful scientific applications can be investigated... 

Jaime B. Practical Handbook on Image Processing for Scientific Applications, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1997. 

C. H. Schilling, S. Schuster, B. O. Palsson, and R. Heinrich, Metabolic pathway analysis Basic concepts and scientific applications in the post genomic era. Biotechnol. Prog. 15, 296 303 (1999). 

The characteristics of ionic or neutral atom gas lasers (namely, directionality, narrow linewidth, and high coherence length) have determined the great variety of scientific applications in which they have been used up to now. They have served as wavelength and frequency standards, and as alignment systems, and they have been an important tool in holographic experiments. 

Abola EE, Bernstein FC, Bryant SH, Koetzle TF,Weng J (1987) In Allen FH, Bergerhoff G, Sievers R (eds) Protein data bank in crystaUographic databases-information content, software systems, scientific applications. Data Commission of the International Union of Crystallography, Bonn Cambridge Chester, pp 107-132... 

In general, a basic HTML-based GUI appears to suffice for most scientific interfaces and the plugin/helper strategy suffices for special purposes. However, a disturbing trend is the recent appearance of browsers that are not extensible via helper applications (e.g., Safari, IE-6). Such browsers are not likely to be suitable for scientific applications. 

Ion exchangers can also be made from cellulose, especially for scientific applications. They are prepared from alkali cellulose by reaction, for example, with chloroacetic acid (for preparation of sodium carboxymethylcellulose, see Example 5-6). By conversion with 2-chloroethyldiethylamine one obtains so-called DEAE-cellulose, an anion exchanger carrying 2-diethylaminoethyl groups, -C2H4N(C2H5)2. 

Although mercury is known from early times and was used hy alchemists, its first modern scientific applications date hack to 1643 when Torricelli used it in the barometer to measure pressure and about eight decades later Fahrenheit used it in the thermometer to measure temperature. Before this, mercury s use was confined to decorative work, gold extraction and medicines. The element was named after the planet mercury and its symbol Hg is taken from the Latin word hydrargyrum, which means hquid silver. 

The invention of punch-card technique was done in 1890 by Herman Hollerith at the US Bureau of Census and used at first for adding up the number of inhabitants in US each tenth year. The technique was greatly expanded beginning in the 1930 s and many scientific applications of punched-card equipment have been found as a computing aid. 

Vitreous silica has a wide range of commercial and scientific applications. Its unique combination of physical properties includes good chemical resistance, minimal thermal expansion, high refractoriness, and excellent optical transmission from the ultraviolet to the near-infrared. 

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