Protamine complexes with other molecules

It has been reported that the plasmid vector is unable to translocate to the nucleus unless complexed in the cytoplasm with nuclear proteins possessing NLS. NLS are short karyophilic peptides on proteins that bind to specific transporter molecules in the cytoplasm, mediating their passage through the pore complexes to the nucleus. Examples of these peptides will be given later in this section. DNA can also be presented to cells in culture as a complex with polycations such as polylysine, or basic proteins such as protamine, total histones or specific histone fractions (110), cationized albumin, and others. These molecules increase the transfection efficiency. In addition histone HI is identified as transfection-enhancing protein in cell culture (111). 

Fondaparinux is a chemically synthesized pentasaccharide that mimics the antithrombin-binding site of heparin and LMWH. Its molecular size (1728Da) is too small to bind to thrombin molecules while it is bound to antithrombin, Therefore, it is a pure anti-Xa inhibitor. It binds very little to platelets, proteins, or endothelium and is excreted in the urine, It does not form a complex with PF4 or other positively charged molecules. It is not neutralizable by protamine sulfate, Recent clinical trials have resulted in FDA approval for prophylaxis of deep vein thrombosis in orthopedic surgery, It has been shown to be effective and safe for the treatment of pulmonary embolism (20,21) and ACS (non-ST-elevation Ml) (OASIS 5—Michelangelo Trial) (17). 

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