Symbiosis parasitic

Wolbachia, vertical transmission, mutualistic symbiosis and reproductive parasitism... 

Some organisms, notably parasites, have organelles , which appear to be relics of chloroplasts but have no photosynthetic capacity. They are called apicoplasts but are probably not the origin of chloroplasts. Also note that a feature of symbiosis is that genes that are no longer required can be selectively lost as was probably the case in the example of loss from bacteria on becoming mitochondria (mentioned above). 

Multi-species tests (these should include many types of interactions, such as competition, symbiosis, parasitism, host-plant relationships, and predator-prey interactions. As with the population tests, the multi-species tests may have greater value as a research tool than as an across-the-board regulatory tool for herbicides in forestry). 

Even though symbiosis is a widespread phenomenon and an important agent of evolution, little is known about symbiotic relationships between prokaryotic and eukaryotic taxa.52 The endobiotic environment is comprised of cells of microorganisms as well as the tissues of plants and animals that serve as hosts to a wide spectrum of microbial forms in a variety of relationships. These relationships include mutualism (organisms of different species live together for the benefit of both), parasitism (only the parasite derives nourishment from the host, but does not necessarily cause... 

Befus, A. D. Bienenstock, J. (1982). Factors involved in symbiosis and host resistance at the mucosa-parasite interface. Progress in Allergy, 31 76-177. 

Lumsden, R. D. Murphy, W. A. (1980). Morphological and functional aspects of the cestode surface. In Cellular interactions in symbiosis and parasitism, ed. C. B. Cook, P. W. Pappas E. D. Rudolph, pp. 95-130. Ohio State University Press Ohio. 

Denison, R.F., Kiers, E.T. Lifestyle alternatives for rhizobia Mutualism, parasitism, and forgoing symbiosis. FEMS Microbiol Lett 237 (2004) 187-193. 

Symbiosis refers to the intimate association between members of different species. It does not specify a mutual benefit or harm. Therefore, symbiotic relationships may include mutualism, commensalism, or parasitism. Symbiotic relationships often entail some degree of coevolution of the partners, shaping in part their structural and behavioral characteristics. 

A third form of symbiosis, in addition to mutualism and parasitism, is commensalism (Latin com = with mensa = table). In commensal relationships, one symbiotic partner benefits from the association and the other is unaffected. Different variants of snch relationships have been described. Inquilinism is a kind of commensalism where the symbiont uses a host for housing, snch as birds hving in the holes of trees. A more indirect dependency exists if a symbiont uses something its host has created before its death. This commensalism is termed metabiosis. A typical metabiont is the hermit crab that uses gastropod shells. In phoresy, the symbiont uses the host for transportation. An example for phoresy is the burdock, a plant with fruits that adhere to fur and are dispersed by the movement of mammals. 

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