Method nasal route

Drug delivery via the nasal route offers a number of advantages, the most important of which is the possibility of needle-free treatment. It also means that—in addition to the newly developed peptide- and protein-based drugs—this method is also suitable for a wide variety and perhaps most of the drugs that are currently in use. However, it is not only convenience that sets nasal drug delivery apart This method also provides a rapid onset of action and high bioavailability. 

This route is currently being clinically tested as an application method to deliver insulin for the treatment of diabetes. The major problems in using drugs in nasal aerosols are finding the proper surfactant to breach the mucous membranes and avoiding excessive irritation of those membranes. 

Alternative routes for administering insulin are also being considered.51 In particular, a form of insulin (Exubera) has been developed that can be administered by inhalation or nasal spray, thus precluding the need for subcutaneous injection.88,104 Other modifications of the insulin molecule or use of chemical enhancers can increase the permeability of this hormone so that insulin can be administered through the skin (transcu-taneously) or even via oral or buccal routes.2,35 Technologic and practical advancements in insulin delivery continue to be explored, and methods for administering insulin may be safer and more convenient in the future. 

The more novel routes of administration of opioids, including oral, nasal, rectal, transdermal, spinal, and by patient-controlled methods, have been outlined (SEDA-17, 78). Oral transmucosal fentanyl administration, avoiding first-pass metabolism, produces analgesia and sedation in both adults and children undergoing short, painful outpatient procedures. The quality of analgesia is good, and the adverse effects are those typical of the opioids. 

Smoking the base alkaloid (as crack or freebase) and nasal insufflation of the hydrochloride salt are the most common routes of exposure in abuse. Intravenous injection and application of the hydrochloride salt to mucous membranes are also methods of abuse. In therapeutic use, a solution of hydrochloride salt is applied to mucous membranes. 

Ricin can be detected in the blood or other bodly fluids of exposed animals using competitive radioimmunoassays or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). These methods generally do not distinguish between active ricin molecules versus partially degraded or otherwise inactivated toxin. The postexposure time limit for accurate antibody-based detection of ricin in biological samples varies and depends on the route of exposure and the absorbed dose. In the laboratory, ELISA detects ricin in oro-nasal swabs of NHP exposed to ricin aerosol up to 24 h after exposure (Franz and Jaax, 1997). Likewise, ELISA detects ricin in selected tissues of laboratory rats up to 48 h after an i.m. challenge (Leith et al., 1988). 

Diagnosis of aspirin-induced asthma requires a detailed medical history. The definitive diagnosis is made by aspirin provocation tests, which may be done via different routes. An oral provocation test is used commonly where threshold doses of aspirin induce a positive reaction measured by a drop in forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEVi) and/or the presence of symptoms. A nasal provocation test is done by the application of one dose of lysine-aspirin, and aspirin sensitivity is manifested with clinical symptoms of watery discharge and a significant fall in inspiratory nasal flow. When lysine-aspirin bronchoprovocation was compared with oral aspirin provocation, both methods were equally sensitive. ... 

Although encapsulation using the emulsion solvent removal methods has been investigated for applications in transdermal. - nasal,pulmonary,and ophthalmic drug delivery, - the vast majority of papers addressed the most common routes the oral and the parenteral, for the delivery of medications. 

Therapeutic proteins and peptides have gained a significant market interest owing to their increased development and applicability to multiple disease conditions (Chin et al., 2012 Park et al., 2011). For the systemic delivery of therapeutic peptides and proteins, parenteral administration is currently believed to be the most efficient route and also the delivery method of choice to achieve therapeutic activity compared with transdermal, pulmonary, nasal, oral, and buccal delivery routes (Fig. 11.4) (Muranishi, 1985 Lennemas, 1995 Ghilzai, 2004). But, for the usually faced chronic conditions, patients find the use of daily injections both unpleasant and difficult to be self-administered. 

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