Measurements of site populations in crystal structures

In the following sections the observed and predicted enrichments of transition metal ions in silicate structures are discussed. The partitioning of the cations between coexisting minerals is considered in chapter 7. 

The conventional method for determining cation ordering and site populations within a crystal structure is by diffraction techniques using X-ray, electron and neutron sources. For determining site occupancies of transition metal ions, these methods have been supplemented by a variety of spectroscopic techniques involving measurements of Mossbauer, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR or ESR), X-ray absorption (EXAFS and XANES), X-ray photoelectron (XPS), infrared and optical absorption spectra. 

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