Material removal mechanism evolution

Wang C, Sherman P, Chandra A. A stochastic model for the effects of pad surface topography evolution on material removal rate decay in chemical mechanical planarization (CMP). IEEE Trans Semicond Manuf 2005 I8(4) 695-708. 

Organisms also evolved powerful detoxifying mechanisms that remove toxic materials or convert them to non-toxic forms or nutrients. Examples of alterations to non-toxic forms are the conversions of hydrogen sulfide to sulfate and nitrite to nitrate. The prime example of development of the ability to use a toxic substance is the evolution of aerobic metabolism, which converted a serious and widespread toxin, oxygen, into a major resource. This development, as we have seen, greatly increased the productivity of the biosphere and generated the oxygen-rich atmosphere of today s Earth. 

This polymeric material has inferior electrical and mechanical properties. If the potential applied is too negative, hydrogen evolution and subsequent deterioration of the polymer occur. Using the same electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance (EQCM) techniques, previous workers27 28 29 have shown that cations (X+) are incorporated during the reduction of PPy s with large counterions that cannot be removed according to Equation 3.2 ... 

---