Intravenous administration

Cobalamin should be adininistered parenteraHy by the intramuscular or subcutaneous route. Isolated cases of anaphylaxis have been reported with intravenous administration. 

The cephalosporins generally cause few side effects (80,132,219—221). Thrombophlebitis occurs as a result of intravenous administration of all cephalosporins. Hypersensitivity reactions related to the cephalosporins are the most common side effects observed, but these are less common than found with the penicillins. Clinically only about 5—10% of patients with allergic reactions to the penicillins manifest the same reactions to the cephalosporins, and data would contradict any tme cross-reactivity to cephalosporins in patients who have previously reacted to penicillin (80,132,219). 

Notify a physician immediately. A suggested procedure for physicians or nurses is intravenous administration of 0.3 g (10 mL of a 3% solution) of sodium nitrite at the rate of 2.5 mL/min followed by 12.5 g (50 mL of a 25% solution) of sodium thiosulfate at the same rate. Watch the patient for 24 to 48 h, especially in cases of ingestion or skin absorption. If symptoms reappear, repeat the injections in half the original amounts. These solutions should be kept readily available. In some cases, first aid personnel have been trained to use the intravenous medication subject to government regulations. 

Intravenous administration of magnesium sulfate (1-5 g) is used for the termination of torsade de pointes arrhythmia. The underlying electrophysiological mechanism is not well understood. It includes changes of the current-voltage relationship of Iki and Ca2+ channel blockade. 

Area under the Curve (AUC) refers to the area under the curve in a plasma concentration-time curve. It is directly proportional to the amount of drug which has appeared in the blood ( central compartment ), irrespective of the route of administration and the rate at which the drug enters. The bioavailability of an orally administered drug can be determined by comparing the AUCs following oral and intravenous administration. 

Bioavailability is the amount of drug in a formulation that is released and becomes available for absorption or the amount of the drug absorbed after oral administration compared to the amount absorbed after intravenous administration (bioavailability - 100%), judged from areas remaining under plasma drug concentration-time curves. 

Intravenous administration no absorption problem Oral administration submitted to absorption variations... 

Intravenous administration of a drug produces the most rapid drug action. Next in order of time of action is the intramuscular route, followed by the subcutaneous route Giving a drug orally usually produces the slowest drug action. 

INTRAVENOUS ADMINISTRATION. When giving these drug IV, the nurse inspects the needle site and area around the needle at frequent intervals for signs of extravasation of the IV fluid. More frequent assessments are performed if the patient is restless or uncooperative. 

Some drugs such as norepinephrine or dopamine are particularly damaging to the surrounding tissues if extravasation (infiltration) occurs during intravenous administration. Hientolamine is used to prevent or treat tissue damage caused by extravasation of these dru. ... 

Although rare, benzodiazepine toxicity may occur from an overdose of the drug. Benzodiazepine toxicity causes sedation, respiratory depression, and coma. Flumazenil (Romazicon) is an antidote (antagonist) for benzodiazepine toxicity and acts to reverse die sedation, respiratory depression, and coma within 6 to 10 minutes after intravenous administration. The dosage is individualized based on the patient s response, widi most patients responding to doses of 0.6 to 1 mg. However, die drug s action is short, and additional doses may be needed. Adverse reactions of flumazenil include agitation, confusion, seizures, and in some cases, symptoms of benzodiazepine withdrawal. Adverse reactions of flumazenil related to the symptoms of benzodiazepine withdrawal are relieved by die administration of die benzodiazepine. 

Alcohol sulfates are easily metabolized by mammals and fishes either by oral or intraperitoneal and intravenous administration. Several labeled 35S and 14C alcohol sulfates have been used to determine their metabolism in experiments with rats [336-340], dogs [339], swines [341], goldfish [342], and humans [339]. From all of these studies it can be concluded that alcohol sulfates are absorbed in the intestine of mammals and readily metabolized by to and p oxidation of the alkyl chain and excreted in the urine and feces, but are also partially exhaled as carbon dioxide. Fishes absorb alcohol sulfates through their gills and metabolize them in a similar way to that of mammals. 

The desired speed and duration of a therapeutic effed will also influence the development of the final drug product. The standard treatment of meningitis with antibiotics is via intravenous administration so as to achieve an immediate effed. 

Darragh A, Lambe R, Kenny M, et al Tolerance of healrhy volunteers to intravenous administration of the benzodiazepine antagonist Ro 15-1788. EurJ Clin Pharmacol 24 569-370, 1983... 

Janowsky DS, el-Yousel MK, Davis JM, et al Provocation of schizophrenic symproms by intravenous administration of methylphenidate. Arch Gen Psychiarry 28 185— 191, 1973... 

Convulsions are treated with slow intravenous administration of diazepam (0.1—0.3 mg/kg for children 10 mg for adults) this treatment may be... 

Positron emission tomography studies using "C-toluene in nonhuman primates and mice showed a rapid uptake of radioactivity into striatal and frontal brain regions (Gerasimov et al. 2002). Maximal uptake of the radiotracer by these structures occurred 1 minutes after intravenous administration. Subsequently, clearance of the radiotracer from the striatal and frontal areas occurred rapidly, with a clearance half-life from peak uptake of 10—20 minutes. Radiotracer clearance from white matter appears to be slower... 

Perminks et al. (1987) reported that 80% of a single oral dose of dioctyltin dichloride at 2 mg/kg body weight was excreted in the faeces within 2 days. After 3 days, excretion of radioactivity followed first-order kinetics, with a half-life of 8.9 days. After intravenous administration, 66% of the radioactivity was excreted in the faeces, and a half-life value of 8.3 days was obtained, roughly similar to that of oral administration. Percentages of radioactivity excreted in the urine were 11% and 22% following intravenous and oral dosing, respectively. 

Dibutyltin dichloride induced acute pancreatitis and bile duct lesions in rats, depending on dose (6 and 8 mg/kg body weight intravenously) and time (1-24 weeks) (Merkord Hennighausen, 1989 Merkord et al., 1997, 1999 Sparmann et al., 2001). The lesions in the pancreas developed into a pancreatic fibrosis, and the lesions in the liver into liver cirrhosis. A single intravenous administration of dibutyltin dichloride at 4 mg/kg body weight induced a mild interstitial pancreatitis after 2 days (Merkord et al., 2001). Repeated administration of dibutyltin dichloride (4 mg/kg body weight intravenously) to rats at intervals of 3 weeks induced acute interstitial pancreatitis and, after 9-12 weeks, a pancreatic fibrosis and liver lesions (intrahepatic bile duct hyperplasia) (Merkord et al, 2001). 

Intravenous administration of endosulfan (7 3 ratio of a- and P-isomers) in rabbits produced slower elimination of the a-isomer (Gupta and Ehrnebo 1979). Excretion of the two isomers occurred primarily via the urine (29%) with much less excreted via the feces (2%). Given the earlier evidence in rats and mice describing the principal route of elimination of endosulfan and its metabolite to be via the feces, the differences in the excretion pattern in this study may be attributable to differences in exposure routes, to species differences, or to both. Nevertheless, studies in laboratory animals suggest that both renal and hepatic excretory routes are important in eliminating endosulfan from the body. Elimination of small doses is essentially complete within a few days. 

Gupta PK, Ehrnebo M. 1979. Pharmacokinetics of alpha isomer and beta isomers of racemic endosulfan following intravenous administration in rabbits. Drug Metab Dispos 7 7-10. 

McMahon B.M., Mays D., Lipsky J., Stewart J.A., Fauq A., Richelson E. Pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution of a peptide nucleic acid after intravenous administration. Antisense Nucleic Acid Drug Dev. 2002 12 65-70... 

The concentration of the drug in the esophageal mucosa was over 30 times the systemic levels after intravenous administration. Here again, more carefully controlled studies using gelatin will be required. 

In comparison to intravenous administration of MLV, which usually results in a rapid and almost quantitative uptake into liver and spleen, the fraction taken up into these organs is lower after intraperitoneal injection of these large liposomes. The reason might be that liposomes are trapped in lymph nodes and degradation of the liposomes in the peritoneal cavity can occur (Ellens et al., 1981 Parker et al., 1982) besides, several types of liposomes are degraded more quickly in lymphatic fluid than in plasma (Parker et al, 1981a,b). 

Hunt, C. A., Rustum, Y. M., Mayhew, E., and Papahadjopoulos, D. (1979). Retention of cytosine arabinoside in mouse lung following intravenous administration in liposomes of different size, Drug Metabol. Dispos., 7, 124-128. 

Osawa M, Satoh F, Horiuchi H, Tian W, Kugota N, Hasegawa I Postmortem diagnosis of fatal anaphylaxis during intravenous administration of therapeutic and diagnostic agents evaluation of clinical laboratory parameters and immunohistochemistry 25 in three cases. Leg Med (Tokyo) 2008 10 143-147. 

Previous reactors are at high risk for a new reaction. In many cases reported, re-administration of the culprit contrast medium to patients with a previous non-immediate exanthema resulted in a repeat reaction [1]. In some (but not all) cases, a more severe reaction with subsequent RCM exposure has been described. After provocation tests, a re-appearance of the exanthemas after intravenous administration of the culprit contrast medium has been reported in patients with previous contrast medium-induced eruptions [1]. 

Antibiotics. Antibiotics are commonly administered peroperatively. At the present time, allergy to (3-lactams represents 12-15% of the peroperative reactions observed in France [9]. Vancomycin, which is increasingly used for prophylaxis, has been incriminated in some cases. The red man syndrome is due to non-specific histamine release induced by a rapid intravenous administration [21]. 

Methods of detection, metabolism, and pathophysiology of the brevetoxins, PbTx-2 and PbTx-3, are summarized. Infrared spectroscopy and innovative chromatographic techniques were examined as methods for detection and structural analysis. Toxicokinetic and metabolic studies for in vivo and in vitro systems demonstrated hepatic metabolism and biliary excretion. An in vivo model of brevetoxin intoxication was developed in conscious tethered rats. Intravenous administration of toxin resulted in a precipitous decrease in body temperature and respiratory rate, as well as signs suggesting central nervous system involvement. A polyclonal antiserum against the brevetoxin polyether backbone was prepared a radioimmunoassay was developed with a sub-nanogram detection limit. This antiserum, when administered prophylactically, protected rats against the toxic effects of brevetoxin. 

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