Fumaryl chloride synthesis

The examples of oxidative carbonylations of alkynes were reported on in 1964. Here, Tsuji et al. described the palladium-mediated transformation of acetylene into muconyl chloride, fumaryl and maleic acid chloride (Scheme 8.15) [77]. Later on, they used diphenylacetylene as a substrate for the synthesis of lactones in the presence of alcohol and HCl [78, 79]. 

Tyrosine is either used for the biosynthesis of proteins, thyroxine, epinephrine, or melanin, or catabo-lized to yield fumaryl acetoacetate. The biosynthesis of proteins and thyroxine is discussed elsewhere this discussion is restricted to epinephrine and melanin synthesis and tyrosine catabolism. Dopa 3,4-dihydroxy-phenylalanine is an intermediate common to epinephrine and melanin. To yield epinephrine, dopa is first decarboxylated by an enzyme called dopa decarboxylase. This enzyme is present in several mammalian tissues, including the adrenal medulla, where the reaction yields hydroxytryptamine chloride. From this... 

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