Flame photograph

Fig. 5.11 shows a flame photograph ofTAGN burning at 0.2 MPa. The luminous flame ofTAGN stands some distance from the burning surface, but the luminous flame front approaches the burning surface when the pressure is increased, similarly to the luminous flame of HMX described in Section 5.1.3. As for double-base propellants and nitramines, the flame stand-off distance is represented by... 

Fig. 6.4 Typical flame photographs of an NC-NG double-base propellant.

Fig. 7.4 Flame photographs of AP-HTPB composite propellants at low pressures ...

Fig. 7.34 Flame photographs of an AP composite propellant (a) and an RDX composite propellant (b) showing that the luminous flame front of the RDX composite propellant is distended from the burning surface ...

Fig. 7.45 shows a set of flame photographs of HMX-GAP propellants with and without catalysts. The luminous flame front of the non-catalyzed propellant is almost attached the burning surface at 0.5 MPa (a). When the propellant is catalyzed, the luminous flame is distended from the burning surface at the same pressure (b). Since the heat flux transferred back from the gas phase and the heat of reaction at... 

Fig. 7.45 Flame photographs of catalyzed and non-catalyzed HMX-GAP composite propellants ...

Fig. 12.12 Flame photographs of rocket plumes, showing that the dimensions of the secondary flame decrease with increasing concentrations of KNO,.

Fig. 12.12 shows a typical set of flame photographs of a nitropolymer propellant treated with potassium nitrate. From top to bottom, the photographs represent KNO3 contents of 0.68%, 0.85%, 1.03%, and 1.14%. Each of these experiments was performed under the test conditions of 8.0 MPa chamber pressure and an expansion ratio of 1. Though there is little effect on the primary flame, the secondary flame is clearly reduced by the addition of the suppressant The secondary flame is completely suppressed by the addition of 1.14% KNO3. The nozzle used here is a convergent one, i. e., the nozzle exit is at the throat... 

Fig. 12.17 shows a typical set of afterburning flame photographs obtained when a nitropolymer propellant without a plume suppressant is burned in a combustion chamber and the combustion products are expelled through an exhaust nozzle into the ambient air. The physical shape of the luminous flame is altered significantly by variation of the expansion ratio of the nozzle. The temperature of the combustion products at the nozzle exit decreases and the flow velocity at the nozzle exit increases with increasing e at constant chamber pressure. 

Figure 5. Flame photograph— tioin-fluid atomizer kerosene spray fame...

Figure 7. Flame photographs obtained from the modulated swirl combustor using propane as the fuel showing no-ring and ring modes of combustion...

Figure 12, Flame photographs of the kersosene-air flame using sonicore atomizer and the modulated swirl combustor, (a) Bright yellow, highly radiative flame (b) clean, blue flame.

Figure 7-28 shows a set of flame photographs of the HMX-GAP propellants with and without catalysts. The luminous flame front of the noncatalyzed propellant is... 

Typical flame photographs of NC-NG double>base propellant. 

After the hydrogen combustion, the fuel was injected into the vessel and then combusted. Fuel spray combustion flame photographs were taken by ICCD camera. Light emission of flame was measured using two photo sensors a photo multiplier... 

Figure 6. This anonymous publicity photograph shows a woman using an infra-red spectrometer (Perkin-Elmer Model 21). Not only is the instrument placed in a clean uncluttered environment (except for the ashtray with a stubbed-out cigarette ), but the flamed photograph of the mushroom cloud from a nuclear explosion underlines the association that this type of instrument initially had with physics rather than chemistry. 1955, Applera/Perkin-Elmer Collection. Reproduced by courtesy of the Chemical Heritage Foundation.

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