Discussion of experimental methods

VIL3 Aqueous thorium hydroxide complexes VII.3.1 Discussion of experimental methods 

There is only one stable oxidation state of thorium and the corresponding aqueous ion, Th , is the least hydrolysed of the known ions. 

The stoichiometry and equilibrium corrstants for hydrolysis reactions are in general formulated as  

There are a number of different experimental methods to determine the stoichiometry and equilibrium constants for Reaction (V11.2). cf. Section Vll.3.4. The advantages and disadvantages of the most frequently used methods, potentiometry, liquid-liquid extraction and solubility, are briefly discussed in the following sections for more details see the book by Rossotti and Rossotti [1961ROS/ROS]. 

---

Excellent comprehensive survey, including a discussion of experimental methods. 

Excellent discussion of experimental methods and summary of experimental results. 

The measurement of VLE can be carried out in several ways. A common procedure is to use a recycle stiU which is designed to ensure equiHbrium between the phases. Samples are then taken and analy2ed by suitable methods. It is possible in some cases to extract equiHbrium data from chromatographic procedures. Discussions of experimental methods are available (5,11). Eor the more challenging measurements, eg, conditions where one or more components in the mixture can decompose or polymeri2e, commercial laboratories can be used. 

For further discussion of experimental methods for determination of electrophoretic titration curves of proteins, see the recent study by Gianazza et al. [129], For discussion of the free solution mobility of DNA see Stellwagen et al. [368],... 

As the brief introduction to the subject presented here shows, hydrogen bonding is extremely important in all areas of chemistry. Additional topics including discussions of experimental methods for studying hydrogen bonding can be found in the references cited at the end of this chapter. 

The rate of chemical reaction must be measured and cannot be predicted from properties of chemical species. A thorough discussion of experimental methods cannot be given at this point, since it requires knowledge of types of chemical reactors that can be used, and the ways in which rate of reaction can be represented. However, it is useful to consider the problem of experimental determination even in a preliminary way, since it provides a better understanding of the methods of chemical kinetics from the outset. 

The fourth chapter offers the perspectives of James B. Howard and Douglas C. Rees on non-heme iron protein chemistry. Section I of this chapter presents a particularly broad and accessible summary of iron-containing proteins, and subsection B gives a quite general discussion of experimental methods for characterizing metalloproteins which will be helpful to newcomers to the field. 

For discussion of experimental methods and more detailed discussion of the theory see C. P. Smyth, Dielectric Constant and Molecular Structure, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1955 or J. W. Smith, Electric Dipole Moments, Butterworths, London, 1955. A more detailed theoretical treatment is given by J. H. Van Vleck, The Theory of Electric and Magnetic Susceptibilities, Oxford University PresB, 1932. 

We shall discuss the influence of the heterogeneous character of the surface in Sec. IX,2, which will be followed (Sec. IX,3) by a discussion of experimental methods to distinguish between a heterogeneous and a homogeneous surface. In subsequent sections we shall examine the decrease of the heats of chemisorption with increasing degrees of occupation on a surface of a homogeneous character. 

Of perhaps greater interest to electrochemists who work with organic solvents are reviews that survey measurements of the conductance of electrolytes in a number of solvents, discussions of experimental methods, cell design, and... 

It is always tempting to try to fit observed quantities into a theoretical framework, no matter how simple and crude. One obstacle to such an attempt is the prevalence of experimental error. A discussion of experimental methods for the study of isotope effects in hydrogen atom transfers including some common errors, has been presented elsewhere11 and will not be repeated. This reference also contains many of the experimental values on which the following discussion is based. 

The discussion of experimental methods is divided into two sections Sect. 2.1, where direct measurements of proton transfers such as (1) and (2) are described and Sect. 2.2, which is concerned with kinetic measurements of an overall reaction with a mechanism in which proton transfer is the rate-determining step. 

The discussion of experimental methods which opens this section applies equally well to the next two sections. The development of new methods of measurements of rates has been an important part of the progress in this field. The majority of the kinetic work done has been for systems in which there is no net chemical change. The reasons for this choice of problem are understandable they arise in part from the desire to have the chemistry simple and partly from the novelty and excitement of using isotopic tracers to measure rates of reactions, which until recently could not be measured by any other means. In fact, when the significance of isotopic methods in this field is appraised, it becomes obvious that of principal importance is the fact that the new methods attracted many capable... 

Measurement of Crystal Growth Rates. Techniques used to measure crystal growth rates can be divided into two main groups. The first group is comprised of methods that rely on the growth of a single crystal to obtain the needed data. The second set of methods involves the growth of a suspension of crystals. Discussion of experimental methods can be found in a number of references (Laudise 1970 Nyvlt et al. 1985 Mullin 1993 Randolph and Larson 1986). 

The c jerational nature of specific surface area precludes any interpretation of its numerical values in an absolute geometric sense. There is no specific surface area of a soil clay, but only specific surface areas, each determined with some surface chemical application in mind. If the extent of sample alteration produced by required pretreatment is large, then the soundest use of the numerical results from a given method is simply a comparison of values for different soil clays prepared under standardized circumstances. If a chemical reaction is the basis for the measurement, then the results are meaningful only if applied to molecules similar to the probe molecule reacting with surfaces similar to those in the measured sample. It is this operational context that underlies the discussion of experimental methods to follow. 

Although general discussions of experimental methods are seldom profitable, some mention of this subject should be made. Throughout the history of kinetics, the development of ingenious new experimental techniques has... 

This book is intended to serve as a reference and/or textbook on the topic of impedance spectroscopy, with special emphasis on its application to solid materials. The goal was to produce a text that would be useful to both the novice and the expert in IS. To this end, the book is organized so that each individual chapter stands on its own. It is intended to be useful to the materials scientist or electrochemist, student or professional, who is planning an IS study of a solid state system and who may have had little previous experience with impedance measurements. Such a reader will find an outline of basic theory, various applications of impedance spectroscopy, and a discussion of experimental methods and data analysis, with examples and appropriate references. It is hoped that the more advanced reader will also find this book valuable as a review and summary of the literature up to the time of writing, with a discussion of current theoretical and experimental issues. A considerable amount of the material in the book is applicable not only to solid ionic systems but also to the electrical response of liquid electrolytes as well as to sohd ones, to electronic as well as to ionic conductors, and even to dielectric response. 

Reference must be made to continuing sources of information. Thermodynamic data continue to be published in many scientific journals but the Journal of Chemical Thermodynamics (published by Academic Press) was set up in 1969 to publish factual papers in which there is a full discussion of experimental methods and which contain extensive tables of results. 

---