Data evolutionary pattern

Resampling of morphological data has usually been used to assess differences between successive time intervals (e.g., Foote, 1992,1993,1996 Eble, 2000 Lockwood, 2004 Viller and Korn, 2004), however, it has also been used in a spatial context in the fossil record (McGowan, 2005 Navarro et al., 2005) to assess whether significant differences in disparity existed amongst regions to develop a spatiotemporal approach to the analysis of morphological evolutionary patterns in the fossil record. 

Since the early 1980s, the utility of mitochondrial (mt) DNA for evolutionary and population studies has become widely recognized. The characteristics of this molecule have been examined and described in detail, and data have accumulated both for the distribution and patterns of variation within the mtDNA molecule of specific organisms and for comparisons of many groups at a variety of taxonomic levels.1-6 This information consti-... 

The main focus of this article is the application of genetic algorithm (GA) techniques to solve crystal structures of molecular materials directly from powder diffraction data (Sect. 2). In this application, the aim is to find the set of atomic positions (x,y, z) [knowing the unit cell a, b, c, a, y and space group S] that give the optimal representation of an experimental powder diffraction pattern. In such applications, the population in the evolutionary algorithm com-... 

Throughout the long history of the technique, its emphasis underwent several evolutionary and revolutionary transformations. Remarkably, none of the new developments have taken away nor diminished the value of earlier applications of the powder diffraction method on the contrary, they enhanced and made them more precise and dependable. A noteworthy example is phase identification from powder diffraction data, which dates back to the late 1930 s (Hanawalt, Rinn, and Frevel). Over the years, this application evolved into the Powder Diffraction File containing reliable patterns of some 300,000 crystalline materials in a readily searchable database format (Powder Diffraction File is maintained and distributed by the International Centre for Diffraction Data, http //www.icdd.com). 

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