Anatomical targets

In addition to the total lung dose, the distribution of aerosol within the lungs may affect the clinical response. The aerosol characteristics are changed in a spacer, resulting in smaller particles that are likely to penetrate into smaller airways. However, little is known about the exact anatomic targets of various drugs within the airways. 

FIGURE 5.10 Retroreflective targets are placed over the medial and lateral malleoli and femoral condyles (a). These anatomical targets are used to define the frontal plane of the shank (h). The X axis projects from the ankle Joint center toward the knee joint center. The axis lies perpendicular to the frontal plane, with the Z axis given by the cross product of X and Y. The orthogonal axes in the tight panel represent the ACS,h , which is located at the COM of the segment. 

Anatomically, target locations of LP and El are very close to each other, so the surgical access or passage way for these two procedures is quite similar. The target site for LP is the subarachnoid space, sitting just below... 

J. G. Hall, The lymphatic system in drug targeting An overview, in Targeting of Drugs. Anatomical and Physiological Considerations (G. Gregoriadis and G. Poste, eds.), Plenum Press, New York, 1985, p. 15. 

In vivo receptor labeling offers binding conditions similar to those prevailing in the physiological state and it provides anatomical resolutions compatible with perfusion fixation of target tissue. This technique is... 

Inhaled nicotine is efficiently delivered to the brain (see chapter by Benowitz, this volume) where it selectively interacts with its central targets, the neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). The multiple subtypes of uAChR (see chapter by Collins et al, this volume) all bind nicotine but with different affinities, depending on the subunit composition of the uAChR. Binding may result in activation or desensitisation of uAChRs, reflecting the temporal characteristics of nicotine dehvery and local concentration of nicotine. Another level of complexity of the actions of nicotine reflects the widespread and non-uniform distribution of uAChR subtypes within the brain, such that nicotine can influence many centrally regulated functions in addition to the reward systems. In this chapter, we address the consequences of nicotine interactions with nAChRs at the molecular, cellular and anatomical levels. We critically evaluate experimental approaches, with respect to their relevance to human smoking, and contrast the acute and chronic effects of nicotine. 

The endocrine system is an anatomically diverse assemblage of organs, united by the common fnnetion of secreting hormones. Organs, with qnite different fnnetions, inclnding the kidney, liver and intestine, also secrete hormones and, in this sense, they too are part of the endocrine system. In a functional sense, the endocrine system also inclndes the blood which transports hormones to their target cells, tissues or organs. 

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